In recent years, the unique modernist architecture of Yugoslavia has begun to be increasingly celebrated around the world and recognized for being a singular architectural manifestation, distinct from the work made by either the Cold-War eastern or western powers. However, what has not received as much attention or recognition are the works by Yugoslav architects that were built outside the area of Yugoslavia. Because of the influence and political relationships which Yugoslavia cultivated through creating and participating in the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) (which was a "a forum of 120 developing world states that were not formally aligned with or against any major power blocs"), Yugoslavia was thus able to export its architecture and modernist design aesthetics to many NAM member states. One of the most noticeable footprints in this regard made by Yugoslavia was in creating a huge amount of buildings and infrastructure across the African and the Middle Eastern landscape. Many of these architectural works have long gone unrecognized, not only as excellent examples of Yugoslav architecture, but also as stunning examples of modernist world architecture in their own right. The whole phenomenon of Yugoslav architecture in Africa and the Middle East is only just beginning to be explored, most notably by academic researcher Łukasz Stanek. Here I will give a brief run-down of sixteen notable architectural examples that will help to communicate an idea of the variety of forms in which Yugoslav modernism manifested itself across these regions during this pivotal time period.
1.) International Trade Fair, Lagos, Nigeria
Name: International Trade Fair complex
Location: Lagos, Nigeria
Architect(s): Zoran Bojović, with Predrag Ðaković, Milorad Cvijić & Ljiljana Bojović
Year completed: 1974-1977
Coordinates: 6°27'49.1"N 3°14'49.6"E
Description: Located just off of the Lagos-Badagry Expressway on the western edge of Lagos, Nigeria is situated the 350 hectare International Trade Fair complex. This massive development project was intended to host Nigeria's first ever international trade fair and upon its opening in 1977, it was said to be the largest market place ever created in sub-Saharan Africa. The creation of the trade fair grounds, which ended up totaling 40,000 sq m, was built by Yugoslav construction/engineering firm Energoprojekt, while the buildings of the complex were designed by a design team lead by Belgrade architect Zoran Bojović. The spatial planning of the complex is characterized by its circular flow of connectivity and accessibility between exhibition halls, which was a layout Bojović formulated after being inspired by the results he saw from a field research exercise in rural Nigeria where he asked young village children to draw maps of their small communities. Meanwhile, while the buildings themselves display an playfully ambitious design which invokes a wistful future-oriented design of angular and geometric styles. While the complex continues to host various activities and events, many parts of it have descended into a poor condition over recent years. The most prevalent activity of the former fairground complex is the sale of use car parts, of which it is the largest marketplace of this kind in all of Nigeria. In 2023, the architect Tihomir Dičić presented an investigation about the Lagos Trade Fair complex at the Serbian Pavilion of the Biennale of Architecture in Venice, Italy.
2.) The FINDECO House, Lusaka, Zambia
Name: The FINDECO House
Location: Lusaka, Zambia
Architect(s): Dušan Milenković & Branimir Ganović
Year completed: 1971-1974? [conflicting dates from various sources]
Coordinates: 15°25'27.6"S 28°17'01.8"E
Description: Standing at 90m tall and consisting of 23 floors (with 8,900 sq m of floor space), the FINDECO House is the tallest skyscraper in Zambia, making it one of the most iconic buildings in the country. The name of the building comes from its original owners, who were the State FINance and DEvelopment COrporation. The building is unique in that its floors are cantilevered off of a central pillar, giving the structure a gravity defying appearance. This tower was built for FINDECO at the height of Zambia's copper export trade (which the state corporation managed). However, almost as soon as the tower was completed, the global copper prices plummeted, leaving the corporation all but gutted and Zambia in a recession which continues to present times. Today the FINDECO House largely operates as general office and retail space. In 2013, a huge Samsung sign was installed at the top of the tower. Efforts have been put forward in recent years to renovate and modernize the building, but so far, no such activities have manifested. Also, it is relevant to note that the white skyscraper next to the FINDECO House, which is ZANACO Bank HQ, which was also designed by Yugoslav engineers and architects.
3.) International Conference Centre, Kampala, Uganda
Name: International Conference Center at Serena Hotel
Location: Kampala, Uganda
Architect(s): Dušan Milenković, with Energoprojekt engineering/construction firm
Year completed: 1975
Coordinates: 0°19'03.4"N 32°35'11.2"E
Description: The Kampala International Conference Center was unveiled in 1975 and constructed and designed by Dušan Milenković (on behalf of the Energoprojekt firm) to accommodate the 13th Summit of the Organization of African Unity (OAU). This facility conference facility, along with its adjoining hotel, were constructed in a mind-boggling nine months in order to be ready in time for the OAU conference. Made in a unique hexagonal shape, the building it clad in decorative aluminum panel not only for their attractive appearance, but also to protect the building from the intense tropical sunlight. The summit was presided over by notorious Uganda leader President Idi Amin, also known as the "Butcher of Uganda" who was considered one of the cruelest despots in history. This conference center was used by President Amin for all sorts of personal activities, limited not only to his wedding reception when he wed his wife Sarah Kyolaba Amin, but also, according to some sources, the basement level of the center was used as a torture chamber for Amin's opponents and enemies. The complex has been used consistently over the years for a variety of events and governmental purposes, being updated and renovated in several instances in recent years. It continues to be well used and in good condition to present day.
It is also important to note that situated directly next to the conference complex is Hotel "Nile" (today known as the "Serena Hotel"), which is a large complex meant to house the many attendees of the conventions held here. Just like the conference complex, Hotel Nile was also created by the Yugoslavia-based Energoprojekt company at the same time as the Conference Center and designed by Aleksandar Keković. As one of the most senior architects of Energoprojekt, Keković authored numerous projects all over Africa, such as the Entebbe Airport (there in Kampala), the Garaboulli Irrigation System in Libya, the Lagos School Center in Nigeria, among others. The Nile Hotel was designed as a first-class accommodation to host world leaders and other exclusive guests and was one of the most elite hotels in the country at the time. Constructed in the pre-fab concrete panel system, the hotel originally had a flat white unadorned facade with its broadsides entirely taken up with balconies accented with corrugated railings. President Idi Amin loved the hotel to such a degree that he used it as his personal palace, with some sources recounting that he even made outrageous claims that he was born on the site where it was constructed. This hotel was also the choice of residence for many who worked at the nearby State Research Bureau, which was an agency that served as the secret police for Idi Amin and carried out much of his dirty work and torture. In 2006, the hotel underwent a complete renovation and exterior make-over. It was during this construction that numerous skeletons were unearthed in the hotel's basement from Amin's torture exploits. Today, branded as "Hotel Serena", the new facility has been expanded and bears no resemblance to its former Hotel Nile years, now having been painted orange and plastered over with a faux-Baroque exterior. The hotel continues to be an exclusive accommodation, with guests paying as much as $300 a night to stay here, even despite its dark history. In addition, the new Serena Hotel continues to be a place central to government operations, with it routinely being booked for official functions and is the location where Ugandan presidents deliver their State of the Union addresses. A 2023 article by Milena Ivković and Frank van der Hoevens explores further the history and heritage of this conference complex.
4.) The Babylon Hotel, Baghdad, Iraq
Name: The Babylon Hotel
Location: Baghdad, Iraq
Architect(s): Edvard Ravnikar, Majda Kregar, Edo Ravnikar Jr & Miha Kerin
Year completed: 1969-1982
Coordinates: 33°17'28.2"N 44°23'23.7"E
Description: Located along the banks of the Tigris River in Baghdad is a fascinating stair-stepped-styled complex that was originally called the Babylon Hotel, thus named because the shape of the hotel was meant to be symbolic for the ancient hanging gardens of Babylon. Unveiled in 1982 and created by an architect team led by famous Slovene architect Edvard Ravnikar, it is interesting to note that this 'hanging gardens' symbolism was a bit post-hoc, as this hotel complex was originally slated to be built by the Montenegrin construction firm Lovćeninženjering on the Adriatic coast in Budva, Montengro (mirroring the surrounding mountains), but after the original project fell through, the construction firm repurposed the hotel plan after the Yugoslav government assigned it to build a luxury hotel in Baghdad. Interestingly, very little of the original plans were changed. When it was completed in 1982, it became an instantly iconic landmark of Baghdad. It has continued to operate over the years, even in light of the Iraq War, and has unfortunately suffered several car bombs in 2010 and 2015, which seriously damaged parts of the complex.
5.) Conference Palace, Libreville, Gabon
Name: Conference Palace (Palais de conferences)
Location: Libreville, Gabon
Architect(s): Dušan Milenković, with architects of the Energoprojekt engineering/construction firm
Year completed: 1977, demolished 2013
Coordinates: 0°26'00.5"N, 9°27'11.5"E
Description: This massive conference center complex in Libreville was built to accommodate the 14th Summit of the Organization of African Unity (OAU), held in 1977 and was completed by engineers and architects of the Belgrade construction firm Energoprojekt, with the project headed by Dušan Milenković (who also built a very similar conference center in Kampala two years prior). The complex was constructed within a massive hilly forest park zone north of the city originally known as "Cité du 12-Mars/The City of the 12th of March" (but since 1990 known as the "City of Democacy/Cité de la Démocratie"), a development spearheaded by President Omar Bongo Ondimba as a location set aside to host the summit. March 12th is designated in Gabon as the founding of the Gabonese Democratic Party, which occurred in 1968. Sources relate that it was President Josip Broz Tito himself who recommended the Yugoslav company Energoprojekt as the contractor who should build his conference center for OAU event. An overview of the events of the summit and a description of the conference center can be read in this July 1977 New York Times archived article. Built in a hexagonal shape, the building is comprised of two primary concrete terraces, with the upper level cantilevered slightly outwards beyond the lower, that gave the structure a soaring effect. A bronze colored aluminum ceiling and series of awning protected the interior from the hot African sun. The conference center was decorated in the finest stylings of the time period. The interior of the conference hall was surrounded in wood veneer panelled walls, while just behind the hall's central podium was a floor to ceiling mural that depicted the history and culture of Gabon (with the crest of Gabon displayed at the apex of the painting). A video of the 1977 conference showing views of the interior of the conference hall can be seen at THIS YouTube link. Some sources even describe the Conference Palace as the most luxurious building of its kind in Africa. It was so notable that the complex was event immortalized on Gabon's 100F postage stamp.
However, the Conference Palace was demolished and cleared from the site in March of 2013 (despite renovations to the facility happening just the year before). Some sources say the demolition was to make way for a new complex for the president of Gabon, while other sources say it was for the construction of a new golf course. When commenting on the demolition of the conference center in 2013, the president's spokesman Alain Claude Billie By Nzé made the followings comments in a news article: "It is about rebuilding the city of Democracy to readjust it to upcoming events that will be announced in due course. It will remain an important centre for international meetings, but it needs to be modernised. There will be no question of modernizing by maintaining the same elements in the same places. It is a question of reorganising". This action has since left the city without any sizable conference center facilities. Yet, as of 2024 (more than 10 years later), the former site of the complex is still vacant and occupied only by disused construction equipment and encroaching vegetation.
It is also relevant to note that at the same time as the construction of the Conference Palace, a banquet hall known as the "Hall of Celebrations/Salle des fêtes" was created 140m to the north. This facility was meant to cater to the needs of the 1977 OAU conference attendees, to be used as well for formal events and functions in the years after that official gathering. Standing as a two level concrete complex surrounded by red roof trim and awnings, it was also the work of Dušan Milenković, completed in time for the 1977 conference. It was particularly notable for its opulent lobby area which contained a massive sculptural relief by Belgrade artist Miodrag Živković (as seen in the above photo). However, while this complex was spared the demolition that the main conference center suffered, it was left to fall into a state of extreme degradation and disrepair, which it remains in up to the present day (as of late 2024).
6.) Mulungushi Conference Center, Lusaka, Zambia
Name: Mulungushi Conference Center
Location: Lusaka, Zambia
Architect(s): built by Yugoslav architects of the Energoprojekt engineering/construction firm
Year completed: 1970
Coordinates: 15°23'22.4"S 28°18'48.1"E
Description: The creation of the Mulungushi Conference Center was the result of a interesting crisis in 1970 when the then-president of Zambia, Kenneth D. Kaunda, was slated to host the 3rd meeting of the Non-Aligned Movement. The problem was that Zambia had nowhere to host the event, so Kaunda made a plea to Yugoslavia for help, who, within days, had engineers from the Belgrade construction firm Energoprojekt onsite making plans for the creation of an event center. Construction occurred so fast that it literally was being designed as it was in the process of being built. Miraculously, within those four months, the center was completed and ready for hosting the Non-Aligned conference. This events center included over 4,000 seats, while around the center were built 65 additional villas for hosting the events presidential visitors. The conference center is still in use to this day and appears in good condition.
7.) Al Khulafa Residential Complex, Baghdad, Iraq
Name: Al Khulafa Residential Complex
Location: Baghdad, Iraq
Architect(s): Zoran Bojović & Ljiljana Bojović
Year completed: 1984
Coordinates: 33°20'49.3"N 44°23'11.9"E
Description: Built along Baghdad's famous Khulafa Street just north of the city center and Tigris River is a residential and administrative complex known as "Al Khulafa Buildings". Unveiled in 1984 and designed by the Energoprojekt architect team of Zoran Bojović & Ljiljana Bojović, these two 11-story tall high-rise tower set are overtly modernist in their styling, but in such a way that they make subtle references to the traditional architecture of Iraq at the same time. For example, such features can be seen in the window screens across the broad faces of the building, along with the arch-shaped windows along the top edge of the structure. The two towers of the complex are situated in an odd fashion, where they strangely sandwich between them old Al Khulafa Mosque building. As soon as it was created, these towers stood out as a unique landmark along Khulafa Street, as their white color allows them to stand out as bright beacons among the sea of traditional sandstone homes. The Al Khulafa Buildings continue to exist in good condition and are still used to this day.
8.) Sheraton Hotel, Harare, Zimbabwe
Name: originally the Sheraton Hotel (today called "Rainbow Towers Hotel")
Location: Harare, Zimbabwe
Architect(s): Ljiljana Bakić & Dragoljub Bakić
Year completed: 1982-1986
Coordinates: 17°49'51.7"S 31°02'04.4"E
Description: Situated in the city center of Zimbabwe's capital Harare is a hotel complex that was originally built as a Sheraton when it was unveiled in 1986. Created by the Belgrade husband and wife architect team Ljiljana Bakić & Dragoljub Bakić, who were working with the Yugoslav engineering firm Energoprojekt at the time, this luxurious hotel was and continues to be the only 5-star establishment in Zimbabwe, as well as the largest hotel in the country (with nearly 400 rooms). Its merged double-tower form (67m tall and 18 stories high) is characterized by its smooth golden shape, curved beveled summit and huge glass walls on its board faces, features which give the facade a sleek and almost futuristic modern appearance. Attached to the west side of the hotel was built a massive conference center which echoed the opulence of the building's exterior. In the days leading up to the hotel's conference center hosting the British Commonwealth Summit in 1991, a bomb was set off in the hotel's ground floor, injuring several people. The hotel continues to operate to this day (changing its name to the "Rainbow Towers" in 2005) and exists in excellent condition.
9.) Entebbe International Airport, Entebbe, Uganda
Name: Entebbe International Airport
Location: Entebbe, Uganda
Architect(s): Aleksandar Keković
Year completed: 1972-1973
Coordinates: 0°02'42.2"N 32°26'32.2"E
Description: Located roughly 45km south of Uganda's capital of Kampala is the Entebbe International Airport. The airport's present facility was unveiled in 1973 and was created by famous Montenegrin architect Aleksandar Keković, who worked for the Yugoslav engineering firm Energoprojekt. The airport here at Entebbe is most remembered for an incident in 1976 when an Air France Airbus A300 jet headed from Tel Aviv to Paris was hijacked by a group called the "Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine" and re-routed to the Entebbe Airport. The group held the Israeli and Jewish passengers of the plane hostage and demanded the release of about 40 Palestinian militants who were imprisoned in Israel. The plane was re-routed to Entebbe Airport because the President of Uganda, Idi Amin, supported the hijacker's cause. The hostages were freed a week later by the Israeli Defense Forces in a dramatic rescue called "Operation Entebbe". Additional dramatic actions occurred at this site three years later in 1979 when parts of the airport were destroyed during the Uganda-Tanzanian War. The airport complex which Keković designed is still in operation, but there are plans over the next few years to renovate and modernize the airport's facilities.
10.) State Ministries Complex, Kano, Nigeria
Name: State Ministries Complex
Location: Kano, Nigeria
Architect(s): Milica Šterić & Zoran Bojović
Year completed: 1978
Coordinates: 11°59'05.4"N 8°32'20.9"E
Description: Starting in the late 1970s, the Yugoslav engineering and construction firm Energoprojekt undertook the construction of three major projects in Nigeria. The first of these projects was the creation of the State Ministries Complex for the Nigeria state of Kano, which would be built in the center of the city of Kano. This complex would house the state Ministries of Finance, Information, Environment, Justice, among several others. This sprawling complex was designed by Energoprojekt architects Milica Šterić & Zoran Bojović. Šterić herself was an architect who had been with the company since its inception and who hand selected from university not only Bojović, but many architects such as Dragoljub Bakić and Aleksanadar Kekovi who would go on to design some of Energoprojekt's most iconic works in Africa. The architecture of the Ministries Complex here in Kano would employ many features to combat the intense sun and heat endemic to this region, such as a bright white color to increase sun reflection, as well as lattice screens over south facing windows (which itself was a technique borrowed from local architectural traditions). Furthermore, during an interview, Bojović states that part of his inspiration behind the form of this complex was seeing stacked bags of peanuts (Kano's main exports) as he went on his daily walks with Šterić during their time in Kano working on this project. In addition, this project, as well as many other Energoprojekt efforts in Africa, were created of prefabricated standardized sections, which increased the speed and efficiency of construction. As of present day, the State Ministries Complex continues to operate and exists in a reasonably good state of repair.
11.) Central Post Office, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Name: Central Post Office/Headquarters for Ethio Telecom
Location: Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Architect(s): Ivan Štraus & Zdravko Kovačević
Year completed: 1964
Coordinates: 9°01'14.4"N 38°45'09.8"E
Description: Located in the city center of the Ethiopian capital of Addis Ababa is what was originally built at the Central Post Office headquarters complex for the country, as well as the Ministry of Postal, Telegraph and Telephone Services and the Ethiopia Telecommunications Head Office (Ethio Telecom). This project came about, in part, as a result of Ethiopia's Emperor Haile Selassie strong relationship with Yugoslav President Josip Broz Tito through the Non-Aligned Movement (a relationship that was so strong that Tito named Selassie an honorary citizen of Belgrade). The creation of this ministry building was among the influential early works of famous Bosnian architect Ivan Štraus, who (along with his long time architect partner Zdravko Kovačević) would later go on to create some of the most famous buildings in Yugoslavia, such as the Holiday Inn, Elektroprivreda and UNIS Towers in Sarajevo, as well as the Aviation Museum in Belgrade. Created in the International Style, this massive complex in Addis Ababa is composed of two detached long thin 8-story tall modernist buildings (45m & 65m long by 15m wide) oriented perpendicular to each other. The complex remains is use in its original purpose to this day and stands in good state and condition.
12.) Duke of Harar Memorial Hospital, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Name: Originally named "Duke of Harar Memorial Hospital" (today called "Black Lion Hospital")
Location: Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Architect(s): designed by employees of the Yugoslav construction firm "Union Engineering"
Year completed: 1964-1973
Coordinates: 9°01'14.1"N 38°45'01.1"E
Description: Situated right in the city center of Addis Ababa, just a few dozen meters away from the famous Dilachn Monument, is the famous "Black Lion Hospital", which was originally called the Duke of Harar Memorial Hospital (which was named after the second son of the Ethiopia's Emporer Haile Selassie, who was named Prince Makonnen Haile Selassie). Built in large part by architects and engineers of the Yugoslav construction firm "Union Engineering", work began on this massive 8-story, 155m long, 535-bed modernist hospital complex in 1964, however, its completion was slowed considerably as the result of funding problems. When it was finially unveiled in 1973, it was the largest, technically advanced and most renowned medical facility in Ethiopia, with sources indicating that it was initially "run by a team of Swiss physicians, nurses, paramedical personnel and administrators" focused on using the complex as a teaching hospital. However, the very next year after the hospital's opening, Emporer Haile Selassie was overthrown by the Derg, who were a Soviet-backed Marxist–Leninist military dictatorship. At that time, the hospital's name was changed to the "Black Lion" (Tikur Anbessa). In present times, the hospital is still in operation, however, the level of medical care it provides still lags behind many other nations of Africa. A 2014 NPR article about the condition of the Black Lion Hospital can be found at THIS link.
13.) Bayan Conference Center, Kuwait City, Kuwait
Name: Originally named "Bayan Conference Center" (now called "Bayan Palace Conference Center")
Location: Kuwait City, Kuwait
Architect(s): Stojan Maksimović
Year completed: 1987
Coordinates: 29°18'11.0"N 48°02'07.6"E
Description: After creating the world-renowned Sava Center in Belgrade in 1979, its creator Stojan Maksimović became one of the most celebrated architects in Yugoslavia. As a result, the year after the opening of the Sava Center, the government of Kuwait (who itself was a member of the Non-Aligned Movement) personally invited Maksimović to participate in a design competition for the creation of a massive new conference center complex in its capital, Kuwait City, which was to host the 5th Conference of the Arab League in 1986. In 1980, the proposal that Maksimović put forward for the conference center won the competition, with construction on the complex beginning shortly thereafter. However, sources relate that for some reason, the final form of the complex unveiled in 1986 (which was called the Bayan Conference Center and that he created in cooperation with the Kuwaiti firm 'Archicentre'), looked vastly dissimilar Maksimović's concept (as seen in the above photos). Meanwhile, just three years after it was opened, the conference center suffered significant damage as a result of Iraq's invasion of Kuwait during the Gulf War. After Kuwait achieved its freedom from Iraqi annexation at the end of the war in 1991, the complex was renamed the "Bayan Palace Conference Center" after a large scale renovation project repaired the structure. It continues to operate to present day and is the largest complex of its kind in the country.
14.) 5 Halls at Kwame Nkrumah Univ. of Science & Technology, Kumasi, Ghana
Name: 5 Halls at Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology (KNUST)
Location: Kumasi, Ghana
Architect(s): Mira Marasović, Niksa Ciko & John Owusu-Addo
Year completed: all works completed between 1964 & 1968
Coordinates: College of Architecture: 6°40'26.1"N 1°33'52.3"W, Senior Staff Club: 6°40'24.8"N 1°34'42.5"W, Africa Hall: 6°40'50.8"N 1°34'31.3"W, Unity Hall: 6°40'46.1"N 1°34'17.9"W
Description: In 1960, the government of Ghana wished to develop the small vocational school known as the Kumasi College of Technology into a full-fledged university. As a result, the institution was renamed Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology (KNUST) (named after Kwame Nkrumah, the first president of Ghana). Through the subsequent years during the 1960s, the university went through a massive expansion, during which a huge amount of campus buildings were added. Five of these new KNUST campus buildings (which included the Vice-Chancellor's Lodge, Unity Hall, Africa Hall, the Senior Staff Club and the College of Architecture) were all created by architect-teams which included Yugoslav architects Mira Marasović and Niksa Ciko, who worked on teams with other Ghanaian and international architects which included John Owusu-Addo, B. Kalogjera and K.M.G. Kirkbride. All of the buildings were completed between 1963 and 1968. These new buildings stood as significant landmarks of new architectural trends for Ghana, while Stanek remarks in his book that many commentators in Ghana during the unveiling of these buildings remarked that they symbolized a break with the heritage of architectural colonialism in Africa. Crafted in what appears to be an adaption of the International Style, the Senior Staff Club appears to be inspired by the most famous of Yugoslav International Style works: The Yugoslav Pavillion at the 1958 World's Expo in Brussels by Vjenceslav Richter, while the Vice-Chancelor's Lodge almost seems to channel the early modernism of Bauhaus in its design. All of these four halls continue to operate to present day and are all in good condition.
15.) National Museum, Aleppo, Syria
Name: The National Museum
Location: Aleppo, Syria
Architect(s): Zdravko Bregovac & Vjenceslav Richter
Year completed: 1961-1969
Coordinates: 36°12'12.5"N 37°08'59.5"E
Description: In the late 1960s, the curators and managers of the National Museum in Aleppo were beginning to feel that their institution was quickly outgrowing the current building it was being housed within, which was at that time a small Ottoman-era palace situated on the edge of Jamal Abdunnaser Park. As a result, government funds were directed towards the completion of a new complex. Sources relate that the National Museum’s coordinators then organized an international competition in 1956 for selecting an architectural plan for this new museum, which was subsequently won the following year by a spatial concept put forward by the Croatian architect team of Zdravko Bregovac and Vjenceslav Richter. As a result, in 1959, the old Ottoman palace was summarily demolished and the site was prepared for what would be a new modern museum (also removed from the site was a monument in front of the museum dedicated to French General Gaston Billotte). Construction began in 1961 and was finally finished in 1969. The primary form of the complex consists of a three-leveled rectangular body (58m x 66m) that contains a large open courtyard at its center. The facade of the complex is adorned with layers of smooth yellow sandstone panels which are separated by thin black lines of windows encircling the complex. In front of the main entrance is a painted concrete trabeated gateway that is supported in the middle by ancient sculptures. In addition, to the right of the front entrance is a small square pavilion attached to the museum which hosts special displays and exhibitions. Meanwhile, within the museum, a spectacularly enormous collection of thousands of archeological objects are laid out across elegant white marble floors, while the inner courtyard garden beautifully exhibits numerous historical sculptures and artifacts.
The museum has for decades operated as one of the most important historical repositories for archeological artifacts in Syria. However, the museum and its possessions were threatened with the start of the Syrian Civil War in 2011. Reports put out by UNESCO describe the significant risk that this conflict could inflict upon the historical heritage of the country if the museum becomes wrapped up in the violence that has consumed the city, noting that it has already been struck several times by missile and mortar fire, causing significant damage to the roof. While many of the museum’s most valuable contents have already been removed, much of the heavier and bulkier items in the collection remain within the museum. The museum was closed in 2013 because of the ongoing conflict, however, it reopened its doors in 2019 in a limited capacity. With the support of the UNDP, much of the damage to the museum was repaired before its reopening, with a short video showing these efforts available to watch at THIS YouTube link. Furthermore, a documentary called “The Museum of Aleppo” was made in 2020 about the curators and archeologists who worked to protect the museum and its treasures during the war, a trailer for which can be watched at THIS YouTube link.
Lastly, it is interesting to note that, according to interviews with art historian researcher Ivana Nikšić-Olujić, the architectural community in Yugoslavia during the 1960s was unaware that Richter’s & Bregovac’s Aleppo museum was ever actually built. In this 2015 interview, Nikšić-Olujić makes the following statements, translated here into English:
“Only recently did student researchers from the Faculty of Architecture in Zagreb show me some photos that they found through Google and which showed that the museum was actually built, although this information never reached us. As this is now a war zone, maybe they will eventually ask us for original Bregovac's blueprints if they need to renovate the museum. That is why every piece of paper should be kept, because it can contain so much history.”
16.) Ministry of Oil, Baghdad, Iraq
Name: Ministry of Oil
Location: Baghdad, Iraq
Architect(s): Zoran Štaklev
Year completed: 1982-1989
Coordinates: 33°20'24.5"N 44°26'01.1"E
Description: With the wellspring of wealth being brought into Iraq during the 1970s as a result of the skyrocketing price of oil (the main export resource for the country), the capital city of Baghdad began building a significant amount of new modern infrastructure during the late l970s and on into the 80s. This infrastructure included not only new roads, sanitation systems and water networks, but also new government buildings to showcase this new wealth. Not surprisingly, one of the largest and most exuberant works created during this era of mass spending and building construction was the new complex for the Ministry of Oil. The Iraqi government organized an international design competition in 1982 to decide what shape this new ministry complex would take. At the conclusion of the competition the following year, the selection jury chose a concept that was put forward by Macedonian architect Zoran Štaklev, which consisted of a massive facility dominated by a sophisticated arrangement of soaring concrete tower blocks that reached up to 13 levels in height. Construction work on the project began in 1983 and was finally completed in 1989, with the facility being finished in exactly the way in which Štaklev’s plans proposed. The footprint of the ministry building’s towers is a unique layout that can be characterized as an offset figure-8 with two articulated arms extending from its base. From the middle of the two arms, an gargantuan entrance portico extends outwards towards the street in a highly imposing fashion. The entire complex is composed of bare prefabricated concrete panels that are largely unadorned, however, on the tower’s broad faces, the vertical facade columns converge at the roofline to form an arcade of pointing Arabic arches. This arch feature is the one element of the complex that ties the ministry building to the local architectural vernacular. Being that the Ministry of Oil here in Baghdad has been a secured location since its opening in 1989, little is known about its interior and few photos of it exist.
Since the beginning of the Iraq War in 2003 and the subsequent fall of the regime of Saddam Hussein, the Ministry of Oil facility has been protected by the incoming American military forces as they took control of the city during the war’s aftermath. A 2003 article mentions that 50 American tanks surrounded the ministry building and a tall barricade was erected around the entire complex. The building continues to exist in good condition and host significant amounts of security and protection by local authorities up to the present day, however, little other information is available about the building or its unique history.
Special Thanks
I want to thank academic researcher Łukasz Stanek, the expert in African modernist architecture who I mention several times in. He provided me with significant imformation from his new book "Architecture in Global Socialism: Eastern Europe, West Africa, and the Middle East in the Cold War", which documents in great detail a huge amount of modernist architecture across Africa and the Middle East. I am extremely appreciative of all the help he offered.